Phonological verbal fluency norms for Spanish-speaking middle-aged and older adults: Letters F, A, and S
Supporting Agencies
- Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación
- PSI2012-38375-C03-03
- PSI2015-68793-C3-3-R
- RTI2018-098762-B-C31
- PID2021-122979OB-C22
Abstract
Background: Verbal fluency tests are easy and regularly used in neuropsychological assessment. This paper offers normative data of phonological verbal fluency tests (FAS) for Spanish middle- and older-aged adults, considering sociodemographic factors, and different measures such as the total number of words, errors, and words evoked in each 15 sec-segment. Method: A total of 920 cognitively unimpaired participants, aged between 50 and 89 years old, participated in the study. The statistical procedure includes the conversion of percentile ranges into scalar scores to obtain a normal distribution. The effects of age, education, and sex were verified by determination coefficients. Corrections were only applied for those sociodemographic variables that explained more than 5%. Linear regressions are used to calculate the scalar-adjusted scores. Results: Scalar scores and percentiles for all tests across different measures are shown. Supplementary tables are provided for necessary adjustments considering educational level, since the results showed no differences related to age and sex across analyses. Conclusions: This study provides updated and clinically useful normative data for European Spanish-speaking natives, aged from 50 to 89 years, for FAS tests, considering errors and word production over 15-second segments. The influence of education on tasks aligns with findings from previous studies.
Downloads
-
Abstract988
-
pdf50
References
Aki̇, Ö. E., Alkan, B., Demi̇rsöz, T., Velİbaşoğlu, B., Taşdemi̇r, T., Erbaş, S. P., ... & Demİr, B. (2022). Effects of age, gender and education on pho-nemic and semantic verbal fluency. Turkish Journal of Psychiatry, 33(1), 53-64. https://doi.org/10.5080/u25553
Amunts, J., Camilleri, J. A., Eickhoff, S. B., Patil, K. R., Heim, S., Von Polier, G. G., & Weis, S. (2021). Comprehensive verbal fluency features predict executive function performance. Scientific reports, 11(1), 6929. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85981-1
Baldo J. V., Schwartz S., Wilkins D. P., Dronkers N. F. (2010). Double disso-ciation of letter and category fluency following left frontal and temporal lobe lesions. Aphasiology, 24(12), 1593–1604. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2010.489260
Brothers, T., Swaab, T. Y., & Traxler, M. J. (2017). Goals and strategies influ-ence lexical prediction during sentence comprehension. Journal of memory and language, 93, 203-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2016.10.002
Buriel, Y., Gramunt, N., Bohm, P., Rodes, E., & Peña-Casanova, J. (2004). Fluencia verbal. Estudio normativo piloto en una muestra española de adultos jóvenes (20 a 49 años). Neurología 19, 153–159.
Cavaco, S., Gonçalves, A., Pinto, C., Almeida, E., Gomes, F., Moreira, I., Fernandes, J., & Teixeira-Pinto, A. (2013). Semantic Fluency and Phone-mic Fluency: Regression-based Norms for the Portuguese Population. Ar-chives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 28(3), 262–271. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/act001
Cegolon, A., & Jenkins, A. (2022). Older adults, cognitively stimulating activi-ties and change in cognitive function. International Journal of Lifelong Educa-tion, 41(4-5), 405-419. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370.2022.2082574
Cipolotti, L., Molenberghs, P., Dominguez, J., Smith, N., Smirni, D., Xu, T., ... & Chan, E. (2020). Fluency and rule breaking behaviour in the frontal cortex. Neuropsychologia, 137, 107308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107308
Contador, I., Almondes, K., Fernández-Calvo, B., Boycheva, E., Puertas-Martín, V., BenitoLeón, J., & Bermejo-Pareja, F. (2016). Semantic verbal fluency: Normative data in older Spanish adults from NEDICES popula-tion-based cohort. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(8), 954-962. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acw071
Costa, A., Bagoj, E., Monaco, M., Zabberoni, S., De Rosa, S., Papantonio, A. M., Mundi, C., Caltagirone, C., & Carlesimo, G. A. (2014). Standardiza-tion and normative data obtained in the Italian population for a new ver-bal fluency instrument, the phonemic/semantic alternate fluency test. Neurological Sciences, 35(3), 365-372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-013-1520-8
Cottingham, M. E., & Hawkins, K. A. (2010). Verbal fluency deficits co-occur with memory deficits in geriatric patients at risk for dementia: Implica-tions for the concept of mild cognitive impairment. Behavioral Neurology, 22(3-4), 73–79. https://doi.org/10.3233/ben-2009-0246
Crowe, S. F. (1998). Decrease in Performance on the Verbal Fluency Test as a Function of Time: Evaluation in a Young Healthy Sample. Journal of Clini-cal and Experimental Neuropsychology, 20(3), 391–401. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.20.3.391.810
Delgado-Losada, M. L., López-Higes, R., Rubio-Valdehita, S., Facal, D., Lojo-Seoane, C., Montenegro-Peña, M., Frades-Payo, B., & Fernández-Blázquez, M. Á. (2021). Spanish consortium for ageing normative data (SCAND): Screening tests (MMSE, GDS-15 and MFE). Psicothema, 33(1), 70-76. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2020.304
Delgado-Losada, M. L., Rubio-Valdehita, S., López-Higes, R., Campos-Magdaleno, M., Ávila-Villanueva, M., Frades-Payo, B., & Lojo-Seoane, C. (2024). Phonological fluency norms for Spanish middle-aged and older adults provided by the SCAND initiative (P, M, & R). Journal of the Interna-tional Neuropsychological Society, 30(2), 172-182. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617723000309
Demetriou E., & Holtzer, R. (2017). Mild Cognitive Impairments Moderate the Effect of Time on Verbal Fluency Performance. Journal of the Interna-tional Neuropsychological Society, 23(1), 44-55. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617716000825
Dursun, S. M., Robertson, H. A., Bird, D., Kutcher, D., & Kutcher, S. P. (2002). Effects of ageing on prefrontal temporal cortical network func-tion in healthy volunteers as assessed by COWA. An exploratory survey. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology Biological Psychiatry, 26(5), 1007-1010. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0278-5846(01)00321-9
Ekström, I., Josefsson, M., Bäckman, L., & Laukka, E. J. (2024). Predictors of cognitive aging profiles over 15 years: A longitudinal population-based study. Psychology and Aging, 39(5), 467–483. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000807
Federmeier, K. D., Kutas, M., & Schul, R. (2010). Age-related and individual differences in the use of prediction during language comprehension. Brain and language, 115(3), 149-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2010.07.006
Ferguson, C. J. (2009). An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and re-searchers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40(5), 532–538. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015808
Fisk, J. E. & Sharp, C. A, (2004). Deterioro relacionado con la edad en el fun-cionamiento ejecutivo: actualización, inhibición, cambio y acceso. Revista de neuropsicología clínica y experimental, 26 (7), 874-890. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390490510680
Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). Mini-mental state. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clini-cian. J Psychiatr Res. 12(3):189-98. http://doi.or/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
Fonseca, R. P., Marcotte, K., Hubner, L. C., Zimmermann, N., Netto, T., Biz-zo, B., ... & Ansaldo, A. I. (2021). The impact of age and education on phonemic and semantic verbal fluency: Behavioral and fMRI correlates. BioRxiv, 2021-01. https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.01.14.426642
Fortuny, L. A., Heaton, R. K., & Hermosillo, D. (1998). Neuropsychological comparisons of Spanish-speaking participants from the US-Mexico bor-der region versus Spain. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 4(4), 363–379. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617798003634
García-Herranz, S., Díaz-Mardomingo, M. C., Suárez-Falcón, J. C., Rodríguez-Fernández, R., Peraita, H., & Venero, C. (2022). Normative data for ver-bal fluency, trail making, and rey–osterrieth complex figure tests on mon-olingual Spanish-speaking older adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 37(5), 952-969. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acab094
García-Herranz, S., Díaz-Mardomingo, M. D. C., Venero, C., & Peraita, H. (2020). Accuracy of verbal fluency tests in the discrimination of mild cog-nitive impairment and probable Alzheimer’s disease in older Spanish monolingual individuals. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 27(6), 826-840. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2019.1698710
Greenaway, M. C., Smith, G. E., Tangalos, E. G., Geda, Y. E., & Ivnik, R. J. (2009). Mayo older Americans normative studies: Factor analysis of an expanded neuropsychological battery. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(1), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040801891686
Grogan, A., Green, D. W., Ali, N., Crinion, J. T., & Price, C. J. (2009). Struc-tural correlates of semantic and phonemic fluency ability in first and sec-ond languages. Cerebral Cortex, 19(11), 2690–2698. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp023
Heim S., Eickhoff S. B., Amunts K. (2009). Different roles of cytoarchitecton-ic BA 44 and BA 45 in phonological and semantic verbal fluency as re-vealed by dynamic causal modelling. NeuroImage, 48(3), 616–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.044
Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2004). A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency performance in patients with traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 18(4), 621-628. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.18.4.621
Henry, J. D., Crawford, J. R., & Phillips, L. H. (2005). A metaanalytic review of verbal fluency deficits in Huntington’s disease. Neuropsychology, 19(2), 243. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.2.243
Henry, J. D., & Phillips, L. H. (2006). Covariates of production and persevera-tion on tests of phonemic, semantic and alternating fluency in normal ag-ing. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 13(3-4), 529-551. https://doi.org/10.1080/138255890969537
Herbert, V., Brookes, R. L., Markus, H. S., & Morris, R. G. (2014). Verbal Flu-ency in Cerebral Small Vessel Disease and Alzheimer’s Disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 20(4), 413-421. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617714000101
Hirnstein, M., Stuebs, J., Moè, A., & Hausmann, M. (2023). Sex/gender dif-ferences in verbal fluency and verbal-episodic memory: a meta-analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 67-90. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221082116
Jacobs, S., Mercuri, G., & Holtzer, R. (2021). Assessing within-task verbal flu-ency performance: the utility of individual time intervals in predicting in-cident mild cognitive impairment. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 28(5), 733-747. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2020.1817306
Kempler, D., Teng, E. L., Dick, M., Taussig, I. M. & Davis, D. S. (1998). The effects of age, education, and ethnicity on verbal fluency. Journal of the In-ternational Neuropsychological Society, 4(6), 531–538. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617798466013
Khalil, M. S. (2010). Preliminary Arabic normative data of neuropsychological tests: the verbal and design fluency. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 32(9), 1028-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803391003672305
Kozora, E., & Cullum, C. M. (1995). Generative naming in normal aging: To-tal output and qualitative changes using phonemic and semantic con-straints. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 9(4), 313–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854049508400495
Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., & Loring, D. W. (Eds.). (2004). Neuropsycho-logical assessment (4th ed). Oxford University Press.
Lezak, M.D, Howieson DB, Bigler, E.D., & Tranel, D. (2012). Neuropsychologi-cal assessment. 5th ed. Oxford University Press.
Lubrini, G., Periáñez, J. A., Laseca-Zaballa, G., Bernabéu-Brotons, E., & Ríos-Lago, M. (2022). Verbal Fluency Tasks: Influence of Age, Gender, and Education and Normative Data for the Spanish Native Adult Population. Archives of clinical neuropsychology: the official journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 37(2), 365–375. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acab056
Machado, T. H., Fichman, H. C., Santos, E. L., Carvalho, V. A., Fialho, P. P., Koenig, A. M., ... & Caramelli, P. (2009). Normative data for healthy el-derly on the phonemic verbal fluency task-FAS. Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 3(1), 55-60. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1980-57642009DN30100011
Marino, J., & Alderete, A. M. (2010). Valores Normativos de Pruebas de Flui-dez Verbal Categoriales, Fonológicas, Gramaticales y Combinadas y Aná-lisis Comparativo de la Capacidad de Iniciación. Revista Española de Neuro-psicología, 10(1), 79-93.
Marko, M., Michalko, D., Dragašek, J., Vančová, Z., Jarčušková, D., & Riečanský, I. (2023). Assessment of automatic and controlled retrieval us-ing verbal fluency tasks. Assessment, 30(7), 2198-2211. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911221117512
Mathuranath, P. S., George, A., Cherian, P. J., Alexander, A., Sarma, S. G., & Sarma, P. S. (2003). Effects of age, education and gender on verbal fluen-cy. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(8), 1057-64. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.25.8.1057.16736
McDowd, J., Hoffman, L., Rozek, E., Lyons, K. E., Pahwa, R., Burns, J., & Kemper, S. (2011). Understanding verbal fluency in healthy aging, Alz-heimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychology, 25(2), 210–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021531
Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24(1), 167-202. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167
Moraes, A. L., Guimarães, L. S., Joanette, Y., Parente, M. A. D. M. P., Fonseca, R. P., & Almeida, R. M. M. D. (2013). Effect of aging, education, reading and writing, semantic processing and depression symptoms on verbal fluency. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 26, 680-690. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-79722013000400008
Nikolai, T., Bezdicek, O., Markova, H., Stepankova, H., Michalec, J., Kopecek, M., Dokoupilova, M., Hort, J., & Vyhnalek, M. (2018). Semantic verbal fluency impairment is detectable in patients with subjective cognitive de-cline. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 25(5), 448–457. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2017.1326047
Noble, K. G., Houston, S. M., Brito, N. H., Bartsch, H., Kan, E., Kuperman, J. M., & Akshoomoff, N. Amaral, D. G. Bloss, C. S. Libiger, O. Schork, N. J. Murray, S. S. Casey, B. J. Chang, L. Ernst, T. M. Frazier, J. A. Gruen, J. R. Kennedy, D. N. Van Zijl, P. … Sowell, E. R. (2015). Family income, parental education and brain structure in children and adolescents. Nature Neuroscience, 18(5), 773–778. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3983
Norris, M. P., Blankenship-Reuter, L., Snow-Turek, A. L., & Finch, J. (1995). Influence of depression on verbal fluency performance. Aging, Neuropsy-chology, and Cognition, 2(3), 206–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825589508256598
Özdemir, Ş., & Tunçer, A. (2021). Verbal Fluency: An Investigation of Time Variable among Elderly People. Clinical and Experimental Health Sciences, 11(1), 133-139. https://doi.org/10.33808/clinexphealthsci.727477
Pakhomov, S., Eberly, L. E., & Knopman, D. S. (2018). Recurrent persevera-tions on semantic verbal fluency tasks as an early marker of cognitive im-pairment. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 40(8), 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2018.1438372
Panico, F., Sagliano, L., Magliacano, A., Santangelo, G., & Trojano, L. (2022). The relationship between cognitive reserve and cognition in healthy adults: a systematic review. Current Psychology, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03523-y
Patra, A., Bose, A., & Marinis, T. (2020). Performance difference in verbal flu-ency in bilingual and monolingual speakers. Bilingualism: Language and Cog-nition, 23(1), 204-218. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918001098
Pekkala, S. (2012). Verbal fluency tasks and the neuropsychology of language. In M. Faust (Ed.), The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language (pp. 619-634). Wiley-Blackwell.
Peña-Casanova, J., Quiñones-Ubeda, S., Gramunt-Fombuena, N., Quintana-Aparicio, M., Aguilar, M., Badenes, D., Cerulla, N., Molinuevo, J. L., Ruiz, E., Robles, A., Barquero, M. S., Antñunez, C., Martínez-Parra, C., Frak-García, A., Fernández, M., Alonso, V., Sol, J. M., Blesa, R., & the NEU-RONORMA Study Team. (2009). Spanish Multicenter Normative Studies (NEURONORMA Project): Norms for Verbal Fluency Tests. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 24(4), 395–411. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acp042
Pereira, A. H., Gonçalves, A. B., Holz, M., Gonçalves, H. A., Kochhann, R., Joanette, Y., ... & Fonseca, R. P. (2018). Influence of age and education on the processing of clustering and switching in verbal fluency tasks. De-mentia & neuropsychologia, 12(4), 360-367. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642018dn12-040004
Pérez, M., Amayra, I., Lazaro, E., García, M., Martínez, O., Caballero, P., Be-rrocoso, S., López-Paz, J. F., Al-Rashaida, M., Rodríguez, A. A., Luna, P., & Varona, L. (2020). Intrusion errors during verbal fluency task in amyo-trophic lateral sclerosis. PloS One, 15(5), e0233349. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233349
Petersen, R. C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 183-194.
Rami, L., Serradell, B., Bosch, B., Villar, A., Molinuevo, J. L. (2007). Valores normativos de test de función cognitiva frontal para la población mayor de 60 años (Eng. Trad.: Normative values of frontal cognitive function tests for the population over 60 years of age). Rev Neurol 45, 268-271
Ratcliff, G., Ganguli, M., Chandra, V., Sharma, S., Belle, S., Seaberg, E., & Pandav, R. (1998). Effects of literacy and education on measures of word fluency. Brain Language, 61(1), 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1006/brln.1997.1858
Rende, B., Ramsberger, G., & Miyake, A. (2002). Commonalities and differ-ences in the working memory components underlying letter and category fluency tasks: A dual-task investigation. Neuropsychology, 16(3), 309–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.16.3.309
Rofes, A., De Aguiar, V., Ficek, B., Wendt, H., Webster, K., & Tsapkini, K. (2019). The role of word properties in performance on fluency tasks in people with primary progressive aphasia. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 68(4), 1521–1534. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-180990
Roldán-Tapia, L., García, J., Cánovas, R., & León, I. (2012). Cognitive reserve, age, and their relation to attentional and executive functions. Applied Neu-ropsychology: Adult, 19(1), 2–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/09084282.2011.595458
Ruff, R.M., Light, R.H., Parker, S.B., & Levin, H.S. (1996). Benton controlled oral word association test: Reliability and updated norms. Archives of Clin-ical Neuropsychology, 11, 329–338.
Ruff, R., Light, R., Parker, S., & Levin, H. (1997). The psychological construct of word fluency. Brain Lang, 57, 394-405. https://doi.org/10.1006/brln.1997.1755
Santos Nogueira, D., Azevedo Reis, E., & Vieira, A. (2016). Verbal Fluency Tasks: Effects of Age, Gender, and Education. Folia phoniatrica et logopaedi-ca : official organ of the International Association of Logopedics and Phoniatrics (IALP), 68(3), 124–133. https://doi.org/10.1159/000450640
Schmidt, C. S. M., Nitschke, K., Bormann, T., Römer, P., Kümmerer, D., Mar-tin, M., Umarova, R. M., Leonhart, R., Egger, K., Dressing, A., Musso, M., Willmes, K., Weiller, C., & Kaller, C. P. (2019). Dissociating frontal and temporal correlates of phonological and semantic fluency in a large sample of left hemisphere stroke patients. NeuroImage: Clinical, 23, 101840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101840
Shao, Z., Janse, E., Visser, K., & Meyer, A. S. (2014). What do verbal fluency tasks measure? Predictors of verbal fluency performance in older adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 772. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00772
Shores, E., Carstairs, J., & Crawford, J. (2006). Excluded Letter Fluency Test (ELF): Norms and Test–Retest Reliability Data for Healthy Young Adults. Brain Impairment, 7(1), 26-32. https://doi.org/10.1375/brim.7.1.26
Simpson, I. C., Dumitrache, C. G., & Calet, N. (2019). Mental health symp-toms and verbal fluency in elderly people: Evidence from the Spanish longitudinal study of aging. Aging & Mental Health, 23(6), 670-679. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2018.1448969
Stewart, R., Richards, M., Brayne, C., & Mann, A. (2001). Cognitive function in UK community‐dwelling African Caribbean elders: normative data for a test battery. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16(5), 518-527. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.384
St-Hilaire, A., Hudon, C., Vallet, G. T., Bherer, L., Lussier, M., Gagnon, J. F., ... & Macoir, J. (2016). Normative data for phonemic and semantic verbal fluency test in the adult French–Quebec population and validation study in Alzheimer’s disease and depression. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 30(7), 1126-1150. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1195014
Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M. S., Spreen, O., & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary (3rd ed). Ox-ford University Press.
Tessaro, B., Hermes-Pereira, A., Schilling, L. P., Fonseca, R. P., Kochhann, R., & Hübner, L. C. (2020). Verbal fluency in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment in individuals with low educational level and its re-lationship with reading and writing habits. Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14(3), 300-307. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-030011
Thiele, K., Quinting, J. M., & Stenneken, P. (2016). New ways to analyze Word generation performance in brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis of additional performance measures. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 38(7), 764–781. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2016.1163327
Tombaugh, T. N., Kozak, J., & Rees, L. (1999). Normative data stratified by age and education for two measures of verbal fluency: FAS and animal naming. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 14(2), 167–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(97)00095-4
Tung, H., Lin, W. H., Lan, T. H., Hsieh, P. F., Chiang, M. C., Lin, Y. Y., & Peng, S. J. (2021). Network reorganization during verbal fluency task in fronto-temporal epilepsy: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 138, 541-549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.05.012
Turrini, S., Wong, B., Eldaief, M., Press, D., Sinclair, D. A., Koch, G., ... & Santarnecchi, E. (2023). The multifactorial nature of healthy brain ageing: brain changes, functional decline and protective factors. Ageing Research Reviews, 88, 101939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2023.101939
Venegas, M. J., & Mansur, L. L. (2011). Verbal fluency: Effect of time on item generation. Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 5(2), 104-107. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1980-57642011DN05020008
Vicente, S. G., Benito-Sánchez, I., Barbosa, F., Gaspar, N., Dores, A. R., Rive-ra, D., & Arango-Lasprilla, J. C. (2021). Normative data for Verbal Fluen-cy and Object Naming Tests in a sample of European Portuguese adult population. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2020.1868472
Vogel, A., Stokholm, J., & Jørgensen, K. (2019). Normative data for eight verbal fluency measures in older Danish adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 27(1), 114-124. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2019.1593935
Wang, Q., Sun, J., Ma, X., Wang, Y., Yao, J., Deng, W., Liu, X., Collier, D. A. & Li, T. (2011). Normative data on a battery of neuropsychological tests in the Han Chinese population. Journal of Neuropsychology, 5(1), 126-142. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866410X516803
Yesavage, J., Brink, T., Rose, T., Lum, Q., Huang, Y., Adey, M., Leirer, V.O (1983). Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: A preliminary report. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 17, 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(82)90033-4.
Zimmermann, N., Parente, M. A. D. M. P., Joanette, Y., & Fonseca, R. P. (2014). Unconstrained, phonemic and semantic verbal fluency: age and education effects, norms and discrepancies. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 27, 55-63. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-79722014000100007
Copyright (c) 2026 The authors

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
About Copyright and Licensing, more details here.


