An explanatory model of underwater adaptation
Abstract
The underwater environment is an extreme environment that requires a process of human adaptation with specific psychophysiological demands to ensure survival and productive activity. From the standpoint of existing models of intelligence, personality and performance, in this explanatory study we have analyzed the contribution of individual differences in explaining the adaptation of military personnel in a stressful environment. Structural equation analysis was employed to verify a model representing the direct effects of psychological variables on individual adaptation to an adverse environment, and we have been able to confirm, during basic military diving courses, the structural relationships among these variables and their ability to predict a third of the variance of a criterion that has been studied very little to date. In this way, we have confirmed in a sample of professionals (N = 575) the direct relationship of emotional adjustment, conscientiousness and general mental ability with underwater adaptation, as well as the inverse relationship of emotional reactivity. These constructs are the psychological basis for working under water, contributing to an improved adaptation to this environment and promoting risk prevention and safety in diving activities.Downloads
References
Ackerman, P.L., & Beier, M.E. (2003). Intelligence, personality, and in-terests in the career choice process. Journal of Career Assessment, 11, 205-218. doi:10.1177/1069072703011002006
Ackerman, P.L., & Heggestad, E.D. (1997). Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 219-245. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.2.219
Ackerman, P.L., & Kanfer, R. (1994). Improving problem-solving and decision-making skills under stress: Prediction and training. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.
Adolfson, J. (1967). Human performance and behaviour in hyperbaric environ-ments. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell.
Anegg, U., Dietmaier, G., Maier, A., Tomaselli, F., Gabor, S., Kallus, K.W., & Smolle-Juttner, F.M. (2002). Stress-induced hormonal and mood responses in scuba divers: A field study. Life Sciences, 70, 2721-2734. doi:10.1016/S0024-3205(02)01537-0
Arbuckle, J. (2006). AMOS user’s guide 7.0. Spring House, PA: AMOS De-velopment Corporation.
Ato, M., López, J.J., & Benavente, A. (2013). Un sistema de clasifica-ción de los diseños de investigación en psicología [A classifica-tion system for research designs in psychology]. Anales de Psicolo-gía, 29, 1038-1059. doi:10.6018/analesps.29.3.178511
Austin, E.J., Deary, I. J., Whiteman, M.C., Fowkes, F., Pedersen, N.L., Rabbitt, P., … McInnes, L. (2002). Relationships between ability and personality: does intelligence contribute positively to person-al and social adjustment? Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1391-1411. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00129-5
Bachrach, A.J., & Egstrom, G.H. (1987). Stress and performance in diving. San Pedro, CA: Best Publishing.
Bachrach, A.J., Ginzburg, H., Joiner, J., Miller, J.W., Parks, R., & Stew-art, J. (1976). Psychological factors involved in undersea-hyperbaric exposures: Selection and training of professional di-vers. In M.W. Beckett (Ed.), National Plan for the Safety and Health of Divers in their quest for subsea energy (pp. 5.1-5.43). Bethesda, MD: Un-dersea Medical Society.
Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., & van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psycho-logical Bulletin, 133, 1-12. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02251.x
Barrick, M.R., & Mount, M.K. (1991). The big five personality dimen-sions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x
Barrick, M.R., & Mount, M.K. (2000). Select on conscientiousness and emotional stability. In E.A. Locke (Ed.), The Blackwell handbook of principles of organizational behavior (pp. 15-28). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Barrick, M.R., & Mount, M.K. (2003). Impact of meta-analysis methods on understanding personality-performance relations. In K.R. Murphy (Ed.), Validity generalization: A critical review (pp. 197-221). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Barrick, M.R., & Mount, M.K. (2005). Yes, personality matters: Moving on to more important matters. Human Performance, 18, 359-372. doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1804_3
Barrick, M.R., Mount, M.K., & Judge, T.A. (2001). Personality and per-formance at the beginning of the new millennium: What do we know and where do we go next? International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 9-30. doi:10.1111/1468-2389.00160
Beckett, A., & Kordick, M.F. (2007). Risk factors for dive injury: A sur-vey study. Research in Sports Medicine, 15, 201-211. doi:10.1080/15438620701526779
Behnke, A.R. (1945). Psychological and psychiatric reactions in diving and in submarine warfare. American Journal of Psychiatry, 101, 720-725.
Bennett, P.B. (1966). The aetiology of compressed air intoxication and inert gas narcosis. New York, NY: Pergamon.
Biersner, R.J. (1984). Physical and psychological examination of diver: Psychological standards for diving. In C.W. Shilling, C.B. Carl-ston, & R.A. Mathias (Eds.), The physician’s guide to diving medicine (pp. 520-530). New York, NY: Plenum.
Biersner, R.J., & Larocco, J.M. (1983). Personality characteristics of US Navy divers. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 56, 329-334.
Biersner, R.J., & Larocco, J.M. (1987). Personality and demographic variables related to individual responsiveness to diving stress. Un-dersea Biomedical Research, 14, 67-73.
Bolger, N. (1990). Coping as a personality process: A prospective study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 525-537. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.3.525
Bourne, L.E., & Yaroush, R.A. (2003). Stress and cognition: A cognitive psy-chological perspective. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado.
Broadhurst, R.S., Morrison, L.J., Howsare, C.R., & Rocca, A.F. (2005). Military diving medicine. In K.W. Patrick (Ed.), Military preventive medicine: Mobilization and deployment (Vol. 1, pp. 575-610). Washing-ton, DC: Department of the Army.
Brubakk, A.O., & Neuman, T.S. (2003). Bennett and Elliott’s physiology and medicine of diving. London: Saunders.
Campbell, J.P., McCloy, R.A., Oppler, S.H., & Sager, C.E. (1993). A the-ory of performance. In N. Schmitt & W.C. Borman (Eds.), Person-nel selection in organizations (pp. 35-70). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Carver, C.S., & Connor-Smith, J. (2010). Personality and coping. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 679-704. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008. 100352
Caspi, A., Roberts, B.W., & Shiner, R.L. (2005). Personality develop-ment: Stability and change. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 453-484. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141913
Cattell, R.B. (1998). 16 PF, Cuestionario Factorial de Personalidad (adolescentes y adultos) [16PF, Personality Factor Questionnaire (adolescents and adults)]. Madrid: TEA.
Cattell, R.B., Eber, H.W., & Tatsuoka, M.M. (1988). Handbook for the Six-teen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing.
Centro de Buceo de la Armada (CBA). (2000). Manual de buceo autónomo [Scuba diving manual]. Madrid: Cuartel General de la Armada.
Cohen, S. (1985). Cognitive processes as determinants of environmen-tal stress. In I. Saranson & C. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. X, pp. 65-81). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
Colodro, J. (1994). Intervención psicológica en el ámbito militar: buceo y submarinos [Psychological intervention on military field: Diving and submarins]. In E. Medina & A. Romero (Coords.), La psicología como profesión (pp. 151-165). Murcia: Universidad de Murcia.
Colodro, J. (2011). Prevención psicológica de accidentes e incidentes de buceo [Psychological prevention of diving accidents and inci-dents]. In A. S. Ortiz (Ed.), XIII Curso de Prevención y Tratamiento de los Accidentes de Buceo. Edición Nacional (pp. 169-178). Murcia: Nausi-caä.
Colodro, J. (2012). Aptitud psicológica para el buceo: Modelo causal en ámbito militar [Psychological fitness for diving: Causal model in military field] (Un-published doctoral dissertation). Universidad de Murcia, Spain.
Colodro, J., Garcés de los Fayos, E.J., & López-García, J.J. (2013). Componentes psicológicos de la adaptación subacuática [Psycho-logical factors of underwater adaptation]. Sanidad Militar, 69, 231-243. doi:10.4321/S1887-85712013000400002
Colodro, J., Garcés de los Fayos, E., & Velandrino, A. (2012). Diferen-cias de personalidad en la aptitud psicológica para el buceo mili-tar [Personality differences in the psychological fitness for mili-tary diving]. Anales de Psicología, 28, 434-443. doi:10.6018/analesps.28.2.148971
Colodro, J., Garcés de los Fayos, E.J., López-García, J.J., & Colodro-Conde, L. (2014). Prediction of human adaptation and perfor-mance in underwater environments. Psicothema, 26, 336-342. doi:10.7334/psicothema2014.5
Conard, M.A., & Matthews, R.A. (2008). Modeling the stress process: Personality eclipses dysfunctional cognitions and workload in predicting stress. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 171-181. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.07.023
Cordero, A., Seisdedos, N., González, M., & de la Cruz. M.V. (1994). TIG-2: Test de Inteligencia General (serie dominós - Forma 2) [TIG-2: General Intelligence Test (series dominoes- Form 2)]. Madrid: TEA Ediciones.
Costa, P.T., & McCrae, R.R. (1992). NEO PI-R. Professional manual. Odes-sa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Costa, P.T., & McCrae, R.R. (1995). Domains and facets: Hierarchical personality assessment using the Revised NEO Personality Inven-tory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 21-50. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6401_2
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., & Ackerman, P.L. (2006). Ability and personality correlates of general knowledge. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 419-429. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.036
Daniel, J. (2006). Leveraging biomedical knowledge to enhance homeland defense, submarine medicine and warfighter performance at Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory. Tech. Rep. NSMRL-TR-1245. Groton, CT: U.S. Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory.
Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M.W. (2009). Anxiety, processing efficien-cy, and cognitive performance. New developments from atten-tional control theory. European Psychologist, 14, 168-176. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.14.2.168
DeYoung, C.G. (2011). Intelligence and personality. In R.J. Sternberg & S.B. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of intelligence (pp. 711-737). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511977244.036
Edmonds, C.W. (1972). The diver. RANSUM Project 2/72. Balmoral: Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine (RAN-SUM).
Gallar, F. (1995). Medicina subacuática e hiperbárica [Underwater and hy-perbaric medicine]. Madrid: Instituto Social de la Marina.
Gottfredson, L.S. (1997). Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. Intelligence, 24, 79-132. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90014-3
Gottfredson, L.S. (2002). Where and why g matters: Not a mystery. Human Performance, 15, 25-46. doi:10.1080/08959285.2002.9668082
Gutiérrez-Calvo, M., & García-González, M.D. (2000). Ansiedad y cognición: Un marco integrador [Anxiety and cognition: An inte-grative framework]. Revista Española de Motivación y Emoción, 1, 67-118.
Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L., & Black, W.C. (2004). Análisis multivariante [Multivariate data analysis, 5th ed.] Madrid: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hoff, C.E., & Greenbaum, J.L. (1948-1966). A bibliographical sourcebook of compressed air diving and submarine medicine (Vols. 1-3). Washington DC: Department of the Navy.
Hogan, J., & Hogan, R. (1985). Psychological and physical performance charac-teristics of successful explosive ordnance diver technicians. Rep. UP-101. Tul-sa, OK: University of Tulsa.
Hogan, J., & Holland, B. (2003). Using theory to evaluate personality and job-performance relations: A socioanalytic perspective. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 100-112. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.1.100
Hogan, J., & Lesser, M. (1996). Selection of personnel for hazardous performance. In J.E. Driskell & E. Salas (Eds.), Stress and human performance (pp. 195-222). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M.R. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6, 53-59.
Horn, J.L., & McArdle, J.J. (2007). Understanding human intelligence since Spearman. In R. Cudeck & R. MacCallum (Eds.), Factor analy-sis at 100: Historical developments and future directions (pp. 205-247). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hough, L.M., & Furnham, A. (2003). Use of personality variables in work settings. In W.C. Borman, D.R. Ilgen, & R.J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 131-169). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei1207
Hu, L., & Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covari-ance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alterna-tives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1-55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118
Hunter, J.E., & Hunter, R.F. (1984). The validity and utility of alterna-tive predictors of job performance. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 72-98. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.96.1.72
Hurtz, G.M., & Donovan, J.J. (2000). Personality and job performance: The Big Five revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 869-879. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.6.869
Izard, C.E. (1993). Four systems for emotion activation: cognitive and noncognitive processes. Psychological Review, 100, 68-90. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.1.68
John, O.P., Nauman, L.P., & Soto, C.J. (2008). Paradigm shift to the in-tegrative Big-Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and con-ceptual issues. In O.P. John, R.W. Robins, & L.A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 114-158). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Joiner, J.T. (2001). NOAA diving manual: Diving for science and technology. Flagstaff, AZ: Best Publishing.
Lazarus, R.S., & Folman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer Publising.
MacCallum, R.C., & Austin, J.T. (2000). Applications of structural equa-tion modeling in psychological research. Annual Review of Psycholo-gy, 51, 201-226. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.201
Martinez, E., & Lemaire, C. (1992). Psychologie et comportement du plongeur. Marseille: Octares.
McGrew, K.S., & Wendling, B.J. (2010). Cattell–Horn–Carroll cognitive-achievement relations: What we have learned from the past 20 years of re-search. Psychology in the Schools, 47, 651-675. doi:10.1002/pits.20497
McHenry, J.J., Hough, L.M., Toquam, J.L., Hanson, M.A., & Ashworth, S. (1990). Project A validity results: The relationship between predictor and cri-terion domains. Personnel Psychology, 43, 335-354. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1990.tb01562.x
Mogg, K., McNamara, J., Powys, M., Rawlinson, H., Seiffer, A., & Bradley, B.P. (2000). Selective attention to threat: A test of two cognitive models of anx-iety. Cognition & Emotion, 14, 375-399. doi:10.1080/026999300378888
Moray, N.P., Ross, H.E., & Synodinos, N.E. (1979). Final report on a tests battery for the selection of trainee divers. Stirling: Stirling University.
Morgan, W.P., Raglin, J.S., & O’Connor, P.J. (2004). Trait anxiety predicts panic behavior in beginning scuba students. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 25, 314-322. doi:10.1055/s-2004-815829
Mount, M.K., Barrick, M.R., & Strauss, J.P. (1999). The joint relationship of con-scientiousness and ability with performance: Test of the interaction hypothe-sis. Journal of Management, 25, 707-721. doi:10.1177/014920639902500505
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard Jr, T.J., Boykin, A.W., Brody, N., Ceci, S.J., … Sternberg, R.J. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psy-chologist, 51, 77-101. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77
Nevo, B., & Breitstein, S. (1999). Psychological and behavioral aspects of diving. San Pedro, CA: Best Publishing.
Ones, D.S., Viswesvaran, O., & Dilchert, S. (2005a). Cognitive ability in selection decisions. In O. Wilhelm & R.W. Engle (Eds.), Handbook of understanding and measuring intelligence (pp. 431-468). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. doi:10.4135/9781452233529.n24
Ones, D.S., Viswesvaran, O., & Dilchert, S. (2005b). Personality at work: Rais-ing awareness and correcting misconceptions. Human Performance, 18, 389-404. doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1804_5
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). (2000). Allied guide to diving medical disorders. ADivP-2/MDivP-2. Madrid: Subregistro OTAN/DGAM.
Pelechano, V. (1975). El cuestionario MAE (Motivación y Ansiedad de Ejecución) [The questionnaire MAE (Motivation and Achievement Anxiety)]. Madrid: Fraser Española.
Pulakos, E.D., Arad, S., Donovan, M. A., & Plamondon, K. E. (2000). Adapta-bility in the workplace: Development of a taxonomy of adaptive perfor-mance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 612-624. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.4.612
Pulakos, E.D., Schmitt, N., Dorsey, D.W., Arad, S., Borman, W.C., & Hedge, J.W. (2002). Predicting adaptive performance: Further tests of a model of adaptability. Human performance, 15, 299-323. doi:10.1207/S15327043HUP1504_01
Ree, M.J., & Earles, J.A. (1992). Intelligence is the best predictor of job perfor-mance. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1, 86-89. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768746
Ree, M.J., Earles, J.A., & Teachout, M.S. (1992). General cognitive ability predicts job performance. Tech. Rep. AL-TR-1991-0057. Brooks Air Force Base TX: Armstrong Laboratory.
Ree, M.J., Earles, J.A., & Teachout, M.S. (1994). Predicting job performance: Not much more than g. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 518-524. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.79.4.518
Rieben, A.W., & Miller, J.C. (2000). Human anxiety in an aquatic environment. Tech. Rep. USAFA-TR2000-05. Colorado Springs, CO: U.S. Air Force Academy.
Roberts, B.W., Kuncel, N.R., Shiner, R., Caspi, A., & Goldberg, L.R. (2007). The power of personality: The comparative validity of personality traits, socioec-onomic status, and cognitive ability for predicting important life outcomes. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 313-345. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00047.x
Salgado, J.F. (1997). The Five Factor Model of personality and job performance in the European Community. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 30-43. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.1.30
Salgado, J.F. (1998). Big Five personality dimensions and job performance in Army and civil occupations: A European perspective. Human Performance, 11, 271-288. doi:10.1080/08959285.1998.9668034
Salgado, J.F. (2004, April). Moderator effects of job complexity on the Big Five validity. Poster presented at the 19th Annual Conference of the Society for Industri-al and Organizational Psychology, Chicago, IL.
Salgado, J.F., Anderson, N., Moscoso, S., Bertua, C., de Fruyt, F., & Rolland, J.P. (2003). A meta-analytic study of general mental ability validity for different occupations in the European Community. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 1068-1081. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.6.1068
Salgado, J.F., & De Fruyt, F. (2005). Personality in personnel selection. In A. Evers, N. Anderson, & O. Schmit-Voskuyl (Eds.), Handbook of personnel se-lection (pp. 174-198). Oxford: Blackwell. doi:10.1111/b.9781405117029.2005.00012.x
Schaie, K.W. (1996). Intellectual development in adulthood: The Seattle longitudinal study. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Scherer, K.R. (2001). Appraisal considered as a process of multilevel sequential checking. In K.R. Scherer, A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.), Appraisal pro-cesses in emotion: Theory, methods, research (pp. 99-120). Oxford: Oxford Uni-versity Press.
Schmidt, F.L., & Hunter, J.E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection meth-ods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262-274. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.262
Schmidt, F.L., & Hunter, J.E. (2000). Select on intelligence. In E.A. Locke (Ed.), The Blackwell handbook of principles of organizational behavior (pp. 3-14). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Schmidt, F.L., & Hunter, J.E. (2004). General mental ability in the world of work: Occupational attainment and job performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 162-173. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.162
Schmitt, N., Cortina, J.M., Ingerick, M.J., & Wiechmann, D. (2003). Personnel selection and employee performance. In W.C. Borman, D.R. Ilgen, & R.J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 77-105). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei1205
Seisdedos, N. (1992). 16PF, monografía técnica [16PF, technical monograph]. Madrid: TEA.
Shilling, C.W., Werts, M.F., & Schandelmeier, N.R. (1976). The underwater hand-book: A guide to physiology and performance for the engineer. New York, NY: Ple-num.
SPSS. (2010). IBM SPSS Statistics Base 19. Chicago, IL: SPSS, Inc.
Staal, M.A. (2004). Stress, cognition, and human performance: A literature review and con-ceptual framework. Tech. Mem. 2004-212824. Moffett Field, CA: NASA Ames Research Center.
Tetlow, S. (2006). Formal risk identification in professional SCUBA (FRIPS). Res. Rep. HSE-436. London: Crown.
Tett, R.P., Jackson, D.N., & Rothstein, M. (1991). Personality measures as pre-dictors of job performance: a meta‐analytic review. Personnel Psychology, 44, 703-742. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00696.x
Tetzlaff, K., & Thorsen, E. (2005). Breathing at depth: physiologic and clinical aspects of diving while breathing compressed gas. Clinics in Chest Medicine, 26, 355-380. doi:10.1016/j.ccm.2005.05.001
U.S. Navy. (2008). US Navy Diving Manual (Rev. 6). Washington, DC: Depart-ment of the Navy.
Van Wijk, C. (2002). Comparing personality traits of Navy divers, Navy non-divers and civilian sport divers. Journal of the South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society, 32, 2-8.
Van Wijk, C., & Waters, A.H. (2001). Personality characteristics of South African Navy divers. Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine, 28, 25-30.
Verdugo, M.A., Crespo, M., Badía, M., & Arias, B. (Eds.). (2008). Metodología en la investigación sobre discapacidad. Introducción al uso de las ecuaciones estructurales [Research methodology on disability. Introduction to use of the structural equations]. Salamanca: INICO.
Vickers, R.R., Walton-Paxton, E., Hervig, L.K., & Conway, T.L. (1993). Stress re-activity and attrition in two basic training populations. Tech. Rep. NHRC-91-48. San Diego, CA: U.S. Naval Health Research Center.
Vollrath, M. (2001). Personality and stress. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 42, 335-347. doi:10.1111/1467-9450.00245
Vorosmarti, J., & Vann, R.D. (1997). Physics, physiology, and medicine of div-ing. In K.B. Pandolf & R. Burr (Eds.), The textbook of Military Medicine: Medi-cal aspects of deployment to harsh environments (vol. 2, pp. 925-954). Washington, DC: The Borden Institute.
The works published in this journal are subject to the following terms:
1. The Publications Service of the University of Murcia (the publisher) retains the property rights (copyright) of published works, and encourages and enables the reuse of the same under the license specified in paragraph 2.
© Servicio de Publicaciones, Universidad de Murcia, 2022
2. The works are published in the online edition of the journal under a Creative Commons Reconocimiento-CompartirIgual 4.0 (legal text). You can copy, use, distribute, transmit and publicly display, provided that: i) you cite the author and the original source of publication (journal, editorial and URL of the work), ii) are not used for commercial purposes, iii ) mentions the existence and specifications of this license.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
3. Conditions of self-archiving. Is allowed and encouraged the authors to disseminate electronically pre-print versions (version before being evaluated and sent to the journal) and / or post-print (version reviewed and accepted for publication) of their works before publication, as it encourages its earliest circulation and diffusion and thus a possible increase in its citation and scope between the academic community. RoMEO Color: Green.
