Gender differences in child to parent violence risk factors
Abstract
Child-to-parent violence (CPV) has attracted enormous academic interest. Despite this, few studies compare the risk factors between female and male perpetrators of this abuse toward parents. This paper compares 56 male and 35 female CPV offenders, evaluated with the Child-to-Parent Violence Risk assessment tool (CPVR). Results show that girls came from significantly more problematic contexts (with bidirectionality of violence, violence between parents, cohabitation problems and personal problems of parents, and had significantly lower self-esteem. Boys had significantly more histories of substance abuse issues and greater rates of escalation of violence. Overall, both sexes had similar prevalence rates for most variables, the type of violence committed was comparable (although injuries toward fathers were only perpetrated by boys), and female perpetrators had more problematic families than their male counterparts. CPVR scores significantly predicted injuries toward the mother for male offenders (AUC = .842), but not for female offenders (AUC = .660). These results support the use of common treatments and tools for female and male CPV offenders. Future steps and developments in the field are also discussed.
Downloads
References
Agnew, R., & Huguley, S. (1989). Adolescent violence toward parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51(3), 699-711. https://doi.org/10.2307/352169
Anderson, V. R., Davidson, W. S., Barnes, A. R., Campbell, C. A., Petersen, J. L., & Onifade, E. (2016). The differential predictive validity of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory: The role of gender. Psychology, Crime & Law, 22(7), 666-677. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2016.1174861
Armstrong, G. S., Cain, C. M., Wylie, L. E., Muftić, L. R., & Bouffard, L. A. (2018). Risk factor profile of youth incarcerated for child to parent violence: A nationally representative sample. Journal of Criminal Justice, 58, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.06.002
Aroca, C., Lorenzo, M., & Miró, C. (2014). La violencia filio-parental: un análisis de sus claves [Violence against parents: Key factors analysis]. Anales de Psicología, 30(1), 157-170. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.30.1.149521
Beckmann, L., Bergmann, M. C., Fischer, F., & Mößle, T. (2017). Risk and protective factors of child-to-parent violence: A comparison between physical and verbal aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517746129
Borum, R., Bartel, P., & Forth, A. (2006). Manual for the Structured Assessment for Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Boxer, P., Gullan, R. L., & Mahoney, A. (2009). Adolescents' physical aggression toward parents in a clinic-referred sample. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38(1), 106-116. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802575396
Browne, K. D., & Hamilton, C. E. (1998). Physical violence between young adults and their parents: Associations with a history of child maltreatment. Journal of Family Violence, 13(1), 59-79. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022812816957
Calvete, E., Gámez-Guadix, M., & García-Salvador, S. (2015). Social information processing in child-to-parent aggression: Bidirectional associations in a 1-year prospective study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(8), 2204-2216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-0023-4
Calvete, E., Gámez-Guadix, M., Orue, I., González-Díez, Z., López de Arroyabe, E., Sampedro, R., . . . Borrajo, E. (2013). Brief report: The Adolescent Child-to-Parent Aggression Questionnaire: An examination of aggressions against parents in Spanish adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1077-1081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.017
Calvete, E., & Orue, I. (2016). Violencia filio-parental: Frecuencia y razones para las agresiones contra padres y madres [Child-to-parent violence: Frequency and reasons for the aggressions against parents]. Behavioral Psychology/Psicología Conductual, 24(3), 481-495. Retrived from https://www.behavioralpsycho.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/06.Calvete_24-3oa.pdf
Calvete, E., Orue, I., Gámez-Guadix, M., & Bushman, B. J. (2015). Predictors of child-to-parent aggression: A 3-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 51(5), 663-676. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039092
Condry, R., & Miles, C. (2014). Adolescent to parent violence: Framing and mapping a hidden problem. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 14(3), 257-275. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895813500155
Contreras, L., Bustos-Navarrete, C., & Cano, C. (2019). Child-to-parent Violence Questionnaire (CPV-Q): Validation among Spanish adolescents. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 19, 67-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2018.09.001
Contreras, L., León, S. P., & Cano-Lozano, M. C. (2020). Socio-cognitive variables involved in the relationship between violence exposure at home and child-to-parent violence. Journal of Adolescence, 80, 19-28. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.01.017
Childs, K. K., Frick, P. J., & Gottlieb, K. (2016). Sex differences in the measurement invariance and factors that influence structured judgments of risk using the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY). Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 14(1), 76-92. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204014547722
Del Hoyo-Bilbao, J., Gámez-Guadix, M., Orue, I., & Calvete, E. (2018). Psychometric properties of the Child-to-Parent Aggression Questionnaire in a clinical sample of adolescents who abuse their parents: Prevalence and gender differences. Violence and Victims, 33(2), 203-217. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VVD-16-00166
Del Hoyo-Bilbao, J., Orue, I., Gámez-Guadix, M., & Calvete, E. (2020). Multivariate models of child-to-mother violence and child-to-father violence among adolescents. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 12(1), 11-21. https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2020a2
Edenborough, M., Wilkes, L. M., Jackson, D., & Mannix, J. (2011). Development and validation of the child-to-mother violence scale. Nurse Researcher, 18(2), 63-76. https://doi.org/10.7748/nr2011.01.18.2.63.c8285
Elliott, G. C., Cunningham, S. M., Colangelo, M., & Gelles, R. J. (2011). Perceived mattering to the family and physical violence within the family by adolescents. Journal of Family Issues, 32(8), 1007-1029. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x11398932
Emeka, T. Q., & Sorensen, J. R. (2009). Female juvenile risk: Is there a need for gendered assessment instruments? Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 7(4), 313-330. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204009334083
Evans, E. D., & Warren-Sohlberg, L. (1988). A pattern analysis of adolescent abusive behavior toward parents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 3(2), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355488832007
Gallego, R., Novo, M., Fariña, F., & Arce, R. (2019). Child-to-parent violence and parent-to-child violence: A meta-analytic Review. European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 11(51-59). https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2019a4
Gámez-Guadix, M., & Calvete, E. (2012). Violencia filioparental y su asociación con la exposición a la violencia marital y la agresión de padres a hijos [Child-to-parent violence and its association with exposure to marital violence and parent-to-child violence]. Psicothema, 24(2), 277-283. Retrieved from http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/4011.pdf
Gammelgård, M., Koivisto, A.-M., Eronen, M., & Kaltiala-Heino, R. (2008). The predictive validity of the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) among institutionalised adolescents. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 19(3), 352-370. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940802114475
Gammelgård, M., Weizmann-Henelius, G., Koivisto, A.-M., Eronen, M., & Kaltiala-Heino, R. (2012). Gender differences in violence risk profiles. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 23(1), 76-94. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2011.639898
Hilterman, E. L. B., Bongers, I., Nicholls, T. L., & van Nieuwenhuizen, C. (2016). Identifying gender specific risk/need areas for male and female juvenile offenders: Factor analyses with the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY). Law and Human Behavior, 40(1), 82-96. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000158
Hoge, R. D., Andrews, D. A., & Leschied, A. (2002). Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory: YLS/CMI manual. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
Holt, A., & Shon, P. C. (2018). Exploring fatal and non-fatal violence against parents: Challenging the orthodoxy of abused adolescent perpetrators. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(4), 915-934. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x16672444
Ibabe, I., & Bentler, P. M. (2016). The contribution of family relationships to child-to-parent violence. Journal of Family Violence, 31(2), 259-269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9764-0
Ibabe, I., & Jaureguizar, J. (2010). Child-to-parent violence: Profile of abusive adolescents and their families. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(4), 616-624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.04.034
Ibabe, I., & Jaureguizar, J. (2011). ¿Hasta qué punto la violencia filio-parental es bidireccional? [To what extent is child-to-parent violence bi-directional?]. Anales de Psicología, 27(2), 265-277. Retrieved from https://revistas.um.es/analesps/article/view/122841/115491
Ibabe, I., Jaureguizar, J., & Díaz, O. (2009). Adolescent violence against parents. Is it a consequence of gender inequality? European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 1(1), 3-24. Retrieved from http://sepjf.webs.uvigo.es/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=9&Itemid=110&lang=es
Izaguirre, A., & Calvete, E. (2017). Exposure to family violence as a predictor of dating violence and child-to-parent aggression in spanish adolescents. Youth & Society, 49(3), 393-412. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X16632138
Jaureguizar, J., Ibabe, I., & Straus, M. A. (2013). Violent and prosocial behavior by adolescents toward parents and teachers in a community sample. Psychology in the Schools, 50(5), 451-470. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21685
Kuay, H. S., Tiffin, P. A., Boothroyd, L. G., Towl, G. J., & Centifanti, L. C. M. (2017). A new trait-based model of child-to-parent aggression. Adolescent Research Review, 2(3), 199-211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-017-0061-4
Loinaz, I. (2014). Mujeres delincuentes violentas [Violent female offenders]. Psychosocial Intervention, 23(3), 187-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psi.2014.05.001
Loinaz, I. (2016). Cuando “el” delincuente es “ella”: Intervención con mujeres violentas [When “the” offender is “she”: Intervention with violent women]. Anuario de Psicología Jurídica, 26, 41-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apj.2016.04.006
Loinaz, I., Andrés-Pueyo, A., & Pereira, R. (2017). Factores de riesgo de violencia filio-parental: Una aproximación con juicio de expertos [Child-to-parent violence risk Factors: An approach with expert judgement]. Acción Psicológica, 14(2), 17-32. https://doi.org/10.5944/ap.14.2.20747
Loinaz, I., & Ma de Sousa, A. (2020). Assessing risk and protective factors in clinical and judicial child-to-parent violence cases. European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 12(1), 43-51. https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2020a5
Loinaz, I., Marzabal, I., & Andrés-Pueyo, A. (2018). Risk factors of female intimate partner and non-intimate partner homicides. European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 10(2), 49-55. https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2018a4
Lyons, J., Bell, T., Fréchette, S., & Romano, E. (2015). Child-to-parent violence: Frequency and family correlates. Journal of Family Violence, 30(6), 729-742. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9716-8
Margolin, G., & Baucom, B. R. (2014). Adolescents’ aggression to parents: Longitudinal links with parents’ physical aggression. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(5), 645-651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.05.008
McCloskey, L. A., & Lichter, E. L. (2003). The contribution of marital violence to adolescent aggression across different relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(4), 390-412. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260503251179
Meyers, J. R., & Schmidt, F. (2008). Predictive validity of the Structured Assessment for Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) with juvenile offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(3), 344-355. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854807311972
Miles, C., & Condry, R. (2016). Adolescent to parent violence: The police response to parents reporting violence from their children. Policing and Society, 26(7), 804-823. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2014.989158
Moulds, L. G., & Day, A. (2017). Characteristics of adolescent violence towards parents–A Rapid Evidence Assessment. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 9(3), 195-209. https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-11-2016-0260
Nock, M. K., & Kazdin, A. E. (2002). Parent-directed physical aggression by clinic-referred youths. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 31(2), 193-205. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3102_05
O’Hara, K. L., Duchschere, J. E., Beck, C. J. A., & Lawrence, E. (2017). Adolescent-to-parent violence: Translating research into effective practice. Adolescent Research Review, 2(3), 181-198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-016-0051-y
Olver, M. E., Stockdale, K. C., & Wormith, J. S. (2009). Risk assessment with young offenders: A meta-analysis of three assessment measures. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36(4), 329-353. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809331457
Pagani, L. S., Larocque, D., Vitaro, F., & Tremblay, R. E. (2003). Verbal and physical abuse toward mothers: The role of family configuration, environment, and coping strategies. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(3), 215-222. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022599504726
Pagani, L. S., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D., Zoccolillo, M., Vitaro, F., & McDuff, P. (2004). Risk factor models for adolescent verbal and physical aggression toward mothers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(6), 528-537. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250444000243
Pagani, L. S., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D., Zoccolillo, M., Vitaro, F., & McDuff, P. (2009). Risk factor models for adolescent verbal and physical aggression toward fathers. Journal of Family Violence, 24(3), 173-182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9216-1
Penney, S. R., Lee, Z., & Moretti, M. M. (2010). Gender differences in risk factors for violence: An examination of the predictive validity of the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth. Aggressive Behavior, 36(6), 390-404. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20352
Pereira, R., Loinaz, I., del Hoyo-Bilbao, J., Arrospide, J., Bertino, L., Calvo, A., . . . Gutiérrez, M. M. (2017). Proposal for a definition of filio-parental violence: Consensus of the Spanish society for the study of filio-parental violence (SEVIFIP). Papeles del Psicólogo, 38(3), 216-223. https://doi.org/10.23923/pap.psicol2017.2839
Pusch, N., & Holtfreter, K. (2018). Gender and risk assessment in juvenile offenders: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 45(1), 56-81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854817721720
Rico, E., Rosado, J., & Cantón-Cortés, D. (2017). Impulsiveness and child-to-parent violence: The role of aggressor’s sex. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 20(e15), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2017.15
Rosado, J., Rico, E., & Cantón-Cortés, D. (2017). Influence of psychopathology on the perpetration of child-to-parent violence: Differences as a function of sex. Anales de Psicología, 33, 243-251. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.33.2.240061
Routt, G., & Anderson, L. (2011). Adolescent violence towards parents. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 20(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2011.537595
Ruiz-Hernández, J. A., Moral-Zafra, E., Llor-Esteban, B., & Jiménez-Barbero, J. A. (2019). Influence of parental styles and other psychosocial variables on the development of externalizing behaviors in adolescents: A sytematic review. European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 11(1), 9-21. https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2018a11
Salgado, J. F. (2018). Transforming the area under the normal curve (AUC) into Cohen’s d, Pearson’s rpb, odds-ratio, and natural log odds-ratio: Two conversion tables. European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 10(1), 35-47. https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2018a5
Simmons, M. L., McEwan, T. E., Purcell, R., & Huynh, M. (2019). The Abusive Behaviour by Children- Indices (ABC-I): A measure to discriminate between normative and abusive child behaviour. Journal of Family Violence, 34(7), 663-676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00071-1
Simmons, M. L., McEwan, T. E., Purcell, R., & Ogloff, J. R. P. (2018). Sixty years of child-to-parent abuse research: What we know and where to go. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 38, 31-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.11.001
Strom, K. J., Warner, T. D., Tichavsky, L., & Zahn, M. A. (2014). Policing juveniles: Domestic violence arrest policies, gender, and police response to child–parent violence. Crime & Delinquency, 60(3), 427-450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128710376293
Vilariño, M., Amado, B. G., Vázquez, M. J., & Arce, R. (2018). Psychological harm in women victims of intimate partner violence: Epidemiology and quantification of injury in mental health markers. Psychosocial Intervention, 27, 145-152. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2018a23
Vilariño, M., Arce, R., & Farina, F. (2013). Forensic-clinical interview: Reliability and validity for the evaluation of psychological injury. European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 5, 1-21. Retrieved from http://scielo.isciii.es/pdf/ejpalc/v5n1/original1.pdf
Walsh, J. A., & Krienert, J. L. (2007). Child-parent violence: An empirical analysis of offender, victim, and event characteristics in a national sample of reported incidents. Journal of Family Violence, 22(7), 563-574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9108-9
Walsh, J. A., & Krienert, J. L. (2009). A decade of child-initiated family violence: Comparative analysis of child-parent violence and parricide examining offender, victim, and event characteristics in a national sample of reported incidents, 1995-2005. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(9), 1450-1477. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508323661
Wong, T. M. L., Slotboom, A.-M., & Bijleveld, C. C. J. H. (2010). Risk factors for delinquency in adolescent and young adult females: A European review. European Journal of Criminology, 7(4), 266-284. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370810363374
The works published in this journal are subject to the following terms:
1. The Publications Service of the University of Murcia (the publisher) retains the property rights (copyright) of published works, and encourages and enables the reuse of the same under the license specified in paragraph 2.
© Servicio de Publicaciones, Universidad de Murcia, 2022
2. The works are published in the online edition of the journal under a Creative Commons Reconocimiento-CompartirIgual 4.0 (legal text). You can copy, use, distribute, transmit and publicly display, provided that: i) you cite the author and the original source of publication (journal, editorial and URL of the work), ii) are not used for commercial purposes, iii ) mentions the existence and specifications of this license.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
3. Conditions of self-archiving. Is allowed and encouraged the authors to disseminate electronically pre-print versions (version before being evaluated and sent to the journal) and / or post-print (version reviewed and accepted for publication) of their works before publication, as it encourages its earliest circulation and diffusion and thus a possible increase in its citation and scope between the academic community. RoMEO Color: Green.
